Is it enough to design a city together with nature by reducing nature only to green spaces allocated at ground level? Does the limited availability of land for creating green areas in cities mean that the possibilities of planting design have been exhausted? In today’s cities, where dense urban development dominates, it has become almost inevitable to consider architectural surfaces as part of planting design. In this context, the espalier technique stands out as an alternative and effective design approach that integrates nature with architecture in limited spaces.

Theoretical and Spatial Framework of the Espalier Technique

The espalier technique is a traditional cultivation method based on guiding plants along a specific plane, with its origins extending back to European garden art. Historically developed especially for fruit trees to make more efficient use of sunlight and increase yield, this technique has today moved beyond being merely an aesthetic garden practice. It has become a contemporary design approach that establishes spatial continuity between architecture and landscape. Particularly in narrow and limited areas, turning vertical planes into active components of landscape design offers significant advantages in softening façade effects, improving microclimatic conditions, and supporting fruit production potential.

Historical Development of the Espalier Technique

The origins of espalier practices date back to medieval Europe. First used in palace gardens in France and Italy to increase the productivity of fruit trees, this technique provided microclimatic advantages by benefiting from the heat-retaining properties of stone wall surfaces. In the 17th century, with the development of geometric order in French garden art, espalier systems gained an aesthetic character and were widely used in the gardens of the Palace of Versailles.

Today, the espalier technique is gaining renewed importance as a planting approach reconsidered both in the conservation of historic gardens and in contemporary urban landscape design.

Spatial and Design Characteristics of the Espalier Technique

Espalier practices represent an important design approach that contributes to spatial organization by integrating plant elements with architectural surfaces. Through this technique:

• the capacity of plantable surfaces can be increased by incorporating vertical planes into landscape design in limited spaces, thereby supporting green continuity in urban areas,
• the dominant visual effect of hard-surfaced urban fabric can be reduced, while spatial comfort and environmental perception quality can be improved,
• the perceived scale of building façades can be balanced, allowing a more integrated spatial relationship between architectural mass and landscape elements,
• spatial continuity can be strengthened through a planting organization that is not limited to the horizontal plane, increasing the layered legibility of the urban landscape,
• microclimatic conditions can be improved by playing a regulating role on solar radiation, wind effect, and surface temperatures,
• vertical greening can contribute to reducing the urban heat island effect, improving the thermal performance of façade surfaces, and supporting urban ecology,
• opportunities can be created to increase biodiversity in limited areas by forming alternative habitats for birds and pollinator species.

In this respect, the espalier technique is not merely a method of guiding plant growth; it is also regarded as a multilayered design tool that establishes an integrated relationship between architecture and landscape while supporting the ecological, visual, and microclimatic performance of urban space.

Classification of Espalier Form Types

The form types used in espalier practices show different geometric organizations depending on the growth direction of the plant, the arrangement of the support system, and the design objective. These forms not only guide plant development but also act as important design tools that define the aesthetic character of the spatial composition.

Among the most commonly used espalier systems in the literature are cordon, palmette Verrier, candelabra, fan, Belgian fence, and informal form types.

Cordon Form

This form is based on guiding the main trunk horizontally as a single line, known as a single cordon, or as multiple parallel layers, known as double or multiple cordon. It is especially preferred in narrow spaces to create linear planting. By providing horizontal continuity along the façade, it strengthens spatial orientation and offers efficient surface use in limited areas.

Palmette Verrier Form

This is a classical French espalier form characterized by a symmetrical and layered branch organization. Lateral branches emerging from the main trunk are regularly guided at specific angles, creating a geometric structure. It produces a strong axial effect in formal garden arrangements and provides an integrated composition with architectural façades.

Candelabra Form

This form is created by directing vertical branches emerging from the main trunk upward at regular intervals. Through its repeated vertical branch structure, it forms a rhythmic and orderly plant composition on façade surfaces. It is especially preferred on broad wall surfaces and in the spatial definition of public areas.

Fan Form

This form is based on the radial spreading of branches emerging from the main trunk. It supports plant development by creating a balanced distribution of light and produces an aesthetic transition effect in semi-formal garden arrangements. It is frequently used in small-scale gardens and courtyard walls.

Belgian Fence Form

This is a woven system formed by connecting the diagonally guided branches of multiple trees. It is used to create a semi-permeable plant boundary element and provides spatial separation, direction, and visual continuity. It is widely applied in parks, pedestrian axes, and garden boundaries.

Informal Form

This is a flexible espalier system based on guiding the plant in a controlled way without completely suppressing its natural growth character. Since it creates a more organic and natural appearance, it is preferred in contemporary urban landscape designs. Its maintenance requirements are lower than those of other formal systems, and it adapts well to sustainable design approaches.

The Effect of Espalier Form Types on Spatial Perception and Façade Organization

Espalier form types should not be considered merely as technical pruning methods that determine the direction of plant growth. They also function as design tools that play a decisive role in shaping spatial perception and defining the character of the relationship established with architectural surfaces. The geometric order, rhythm of repetition, and orientation pattern of the selected form influence the way façade surfaces are perceived and allow visual continuity to be established between architectural mass and plant elements. For example, cordon and palmette Verrier systems, which show linear and layered organization, create horizontal continuity and a sense of order along the façade, while candelabra and fan forms generate stronger vertical emphasis and contribute to redefining the scale of the surface. The Belgian fence system, on the other hand, can function as a semi-permeable spatial boundary, acting as both a separating and guiding landscape element. In this context, the choice of espalier form should not be treated only as a botanical preference related to the growth character of the plant, but as an integrated design decision that directly affects the perceptual impact of the architectural surface, spatial organization, and user experience.

Plant Species Used in Espalier Practices

The plant species to be used in espalier practices should have flexible branches, be tolerant of pruning, and possess a growth habit suitable for training. In addition, having a high shoot-producing capacity, being suitable for form development, and being able to adapt to regular long-term maintenance interventions are among the main criteria that directly affect the success of the application. Species selection should also be evaluated together with the scale of the space, façade orientation, climatic conditions, and design objective. In this context, the most commonly preferred species in espalier practices are listed below:

• Malus domestica apple
• Pyrus communis pear
• Prunus domestica plum
• Ficus carica fig
• Carpinus betulus common hornbeam
• Tilia cordata small-leaved linden
• Photinia × fraseri photinia
• Pyracantha coccinea firethorn
• Ligustrum vulgare common privet

These species allow balanced aesthetic, functional, and ecological solutions to be produced in espalier systems thanks to their formability and flexibility of use at different spatial scales.

Application and Pruning Principles in Espalier Plants

Espalier application is a planned process based on the controlled direction of plant growth. In the first stage of implementation, an appropriate species should be selected, and the sunlight exposure, wind effect, and spatial conditions of the surface where the plant will be placed should be evaluated. Then, a support system consisting of wires, anchors, and connection elements should be installed to support the plant’s development, and the young sapling should be planted in a position suitable for this system. Regular training interventions carried out in the first years play a decisive role in forming the desired shape by enabling the main structural branches to develop in the intended direction.

Regular maintenance practices are of great importance for espalier plants to maintain healthy growth and preserve the established form. The foundation of this maintenance process is periodic pruning, in which the main structural branches are preserved while side shoots that disrupt the form are brought under control. Summer pruning supports the continuity of the form, while winter pruning strengthens the plant’s structural framework. In addition, guiding shoots according to the support systems, regular irrigation, balanced fertilization, and periodic inspection of support elements are among the basic maintenance steps that determine the long-term success of the application.

Use of Espalier in Urban Landscape Design

Espalier practices stand out as an alternative planting strategy, especially in urban areas dominated by dense development. Narrow sidewalk sections, building façades, courtyard walls, boundary elements, and semi-permeable spatial dividers are among the most common areas of use for this technique. In addition, it allows vertical surfaces to be incorporated into landscape design in interior courtyards, public pedestrian axes, square surroundings, school gardens, and semi-public transition spaces of residential settlements, contributing to the strengthening of spatial continuity. It is also regarded as an effective design tool for reducing the visual impact of technical infrastructure elements, spatially defining service areas, and creating controlled plant organization in urban open spaces with limited plot depth. In this respect, espalier systems gain importance as part of a green infrastructure approach integrated with architectural surfaces and supporting landscape continuity in hard-surfaced urban environments.

Microclimatic Contributions

Espalier practices are regarded as an effective landscape strategy that contributes to improving the urban microclimate through the controlled relationship established between building surfaces and plant elements. Plant layers guided along vertical surfaces reduce the direct effect of solar radiation on building façades, help balance surface temperatures, and contribute to limiting excessive heating, especially during the summer months. At the same time, they allow more comfortable microclimatic conditions to form around buildings by regulating wind movement, preserving surface moisture balance, and increasing the shading effect.

Espalier applications, especially on south-facing façades, support the controlled use of solar energy, accelerating plant growth and contributing to earlier flowering and increased yield in fruit trees. In addition, plant surfaces created along façades help reduce the urban heat island effect; they also provide environmental benefits such as improving air quality, capturing dust, and reducing surface reflections. In this sense, espalier systems stand out as one of the important components of climate-sensitive urban landscape design, beyond their aesthetic and spatial contributions.

Nature Limited by Surface, Integrated with Space

In increasingly dense cities, the designer’s relationship with plants is also changing. The issue is no longer only about placing trees in empty spaces; it is about transforming limited surfaces into living infrastructure. In my view, the espalier technique emerges precisely at this point as an important design tool. This approach makes it possible to turn nature from an element gradually pushed away from the city into an active part of architectural surfaces.

Today, in cities, it is possible to rethink the trees for which we often cannot find enough space by considering them on surfaces. On a façade, in a courtyard, along a narrow street, or on a boundary wall… Espalier gives us the opportunity to treat a tree not merely as a landscape element, but as a design component that creates space. Therefore, espalier is not only a technical cultivation method; it is a powerful approach carrying clues for a more integrated, more sensitive, and more contemporary urban aesthetic between architecture and landscape.

References

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As the weather slowly begins to warm, we are in those days when we start to feel the sweet restlessness of spring. With this quiet stirring in nature, with the trees beginning to bud, and with the fresh scent of soil rising around us, one constantly feels the desire to be outside and to witness nature’s awakening. Lately, as I take my camera in hand and try to fit these changes into my frame, I also find myself witnessing how places begin to breathe with spring, and I feel that they have started to speak to us. As nature wakes from its winter sleep, it reminds us once again that every corner around us has its own vivid and living spirit. This sense of awakening and revival brought by spring inspired me to write about that fascinating subject which had been on my mind for a long time, but which I had been waiting for just these days to put into words.

Sometimes, when you step into a place, you sense that it is not merely made of soil, plants, or stones. The thin murmur of the wind as it passes through the branches of an old tree, the familiar smell released by the earth after rain, or the slow shifting of shadows… When all these details come together, you realize that the place is almost breathing silently, whispering something to you in its own language.

This whisper is not merely a matter of romanticizing life; it is the invisible bond between place and human beings, a bond reaching back thousands of years. In ancient times, people behaved more cautiously when entering the depths of a forest, resting beside a body of water, or striking the first pickaxe into the soil. Why? Because they believed that every place had a silent guardian, a character that should not be disturbed but respected.

For them, nature was not an empty canvas to be built upon, but a living being. The Romans gave this invisible character, which brings a place into being through its water, wind, and soil, a beautiful name: Genius Loci. In other words, “the Spirit of Place”.

A Whisper from Mythology

The etymological and mythological origin of the concept “Genius Loci” is rooted in Roman mythology. In Roman belief, “Genius Loci” comes from the idea that every place has a unique guardian spirit protecting it, and for this reason it is translated as “the spirit of place.” In Roman mythology, these spirits, also known as Genii Loci or Lares, were guardians of homes, fields, and crossroads, and they held a place in people’s lives in ancient times. In Roman iconography, these guardian spirits were usually depicted as young and lively figures carrying a snake symbolizing fertility, a cornucopia, and a libation bowl. For the Romans, these spirits were not the souls of deceased people, but directly the spirits of nature itself; they were even believed to be older than the world.

In ancient times, people believed that a spring, a forest, or an inhabited region was not merely a physical area, but a sacred place protected by supernatural guardians. As a result of this belief, before touching that place or building anything there, it was necessary to please this “spirit of place”. To calm the spirit of the place and ensure the continuity of abundance and fertility, spirit houses or altars were built. Food, incense, and flowers were offered to these spirits, and vows were made to them. This legendary atmosphere was a spiritual and respectful bond that people formed in order to protect themselves from the destructive power of nature and to domesticate the place.

According to philosophical and architectural approaches in the literature, place is not merely a physical location. It is a qualitative and holistic phenomenon in which tangible and intangible values, memories, and lived experiences accumulate in layers. According to Norberg-Schulz, one of the pioneers of architectural phenomenology, “genius loci” expresses the character, unique atmosphere, and identity of a place. Just as every place had its own spirit in ancient Roman belief, every space in architecture also has its own living identity. Every piece of land and every area has an inner impulse shaped by its era and nature, and a character that determines what it wants to become.

The therapeutic and healing effect of a place on human psychology is also nourished precisely by correctly reading this inner character. Today, the concept of genius loci is used not as a supernatural spirit, but as a way to explain why a place feels special to us. What turns a place from a purely physical area into a living presence where people feel belonging, safety, and peace is this unique atmosphere formed through its relationship with surrounding nature, architecture, memories, and cultural texture. Therefore, place is not a dead object independent of human perception. It is a character that interacts with human beings and nature, breathing through the “spirit of place”.

The Poet’s Advice: An Aesthetic Designerly Respect

This deep and mythological respect that Ancient Rome held for the spirits protecting places gradually ceased to be merely a religious or philosophical belief over the centuries and became one of the fundamental principles of architecture and landscape design. One of the most important turning points in the integration of this legendary belief into design philosophy occurred in the 18th century. The English poet Alexander Pope, in the Epistle to Burlington section of his work Moral Essays, where he discussed landscape, garden design, and architecture, summarized the key to good taste in designing a place with his famous advice: “Consult the spirit of place in all things” (Consult the Genius of the Place in all).

This intellectual advice that Pope gave to architects and garden designers argued that, rather than imposing showy, artificial structures contrary to the nature of a site, the existing character of the place should be taken as a guide. With Alexander Pope, this became an aesthetic designerly respect on the drawing table for the natural identity, physical reality, and potential of the site.

The evolution of this respect for invisible spirits and mythology into respect for nature, topography, and existing ecology is the greatest transformation of the “genius loci” concept. In today’s architecture and landscape design, “consulting the spirit of place” does not mean calming a mythological guardian; rather, it means understanding the climate, geological structure, vegetation, wind direction, and topography of that place.

The idea that a site must be read and listened to before design is a continuation of accepting place not as a dead object independent of human perception, but as a being with its own inner impulse and character. Thanks to the vision that Alexander Pope brought to landscape and architecture, the supernatural “spirit of place” of antiquity became, in the modern world, the foundation of a sustainable environmental consciousness that does not struggle against nature and topography, but protects and adapts to existing ecology. Thus, the guardian spirit of legends gave way to the soil and nature themselves, becoming one of the greatest guides for designers.

Hearing the Whispers of the Land

Reading the spirit of a place is one of the most critical and intuitive stages of architectural and environmental design. For a designer, a site is not a dead void on which random lines can be drawn from behind a desk, nor is it a blank sheet of paper (tabula rasa); it is a living being with its own story, past, and character. According to the renowned architect Renzo Piano, because every place is unique, it is vital to know “how to listen to the place” before beginning a project; hearing the subtle and quiet voices whispered by the place requires capturing its essence.

So how does a designer read this spirit when stepping onto a site? The perception of place is not merely a visual process based only on what the eye sees; it is a multi-sensory orientation that develops through all the senses. The designer senses and analyzes the data offered by the site in two main layers: natural and human contexts:

• Listening to the Natural Context: On the site, the direction and hum of the wind, the movement of the sun throughout the day, topographic slopes, soil structure, temperature, and the texture of local vegetation form the physical foundation of the spirit of place. When a designer visits a site, they do not merely look; they feel the softness or hardness of the surface beneath their feet, and sense the local floral or earthy scents carried by the wind. These whispers, which help the place become distinctive, show the designer how light and air can integrate with the structure.
• Feeling Cultural Memory and Lived Experience: The spirit of place is nourished not only by nature, but also by the cultural memory and collective memory accumulated through the interaction of people, environment, and time in that region. The designer must feel the visible and invisible historical traces on the site, the region’s traditional architectural language, rituals, and socio-cultural experiences.

Good and environmentally sensitive design does not take shape in an office environment, through standard templates detached from context, or on a blank sheet of paper. On the contrary, it comes into being by listening to what the land whispers and by establishing a dialogue with it. A qualified architecture in which the natural and the artificial merge can only be shaped by taking the ecology, wind, sun, and topography of the region as references.

Cities Whose Spirit Has Been Killed and the Resistance of Context

The disruptive changes brought by globalization, rapid urbanization, and industrialization have deeply affected cities and places, leading to the emergence of soulless and anonymous structures with no connection to the past of the place. The forced imposition of copy-paste templates on a site, merely because they are popular or comply with global mass-production standards, despite being entirely contrary to the climate, geographical structure, and ecology of that area, destroys the unique identity of the place by disregarding topography and local texture. As a result of these formulaic urban practices, soulless spaces emerge, completely detached from the lived experiences of the place, deprived of a sense of belonging, and lacking any distinctive quality. This approach, which sees nature merely as a material resource and background to be consumed for the realization of human ideals, virtually kills the spirit of place because it turns a deaf ear to the whispers of the land.

Yet against this danger of homogenization, a quiet but powerful resistance is also possible, one that holds on to the whispers of nature and the local. In contrast, designs that respect the presence of the site and integrate with the “spirit of place” place context and ecology at the center. Instead of flattening the topography and erasing the context, designs that preserve existing rocks, local soil, climate, and materials adapted to the nature of the region keep the memory and spirituality of the place alive.

It should not be forgotten that places are not composed only of physical elements; they carry a collective memory accumulated through the interaction of human beings, environment, and time, as well as an intangible “spirit of place” (sense of place). However, the homogenizing, “copy-paste,” and contextless designs brought by globalization see place as a machine or an empty canvas, ruthlessly killing its authentic spirit and cultural continuity. Successful places that integrate with their spirit, on the other hand, accept that every place has a unique character and resist standardized clichés by respecting nature’s own dynamics, its wind, topography, and local texture.

Listen to the Spirit of Your Own Surroundings

“Genius loci” (the spirit of place), is not a theoretical concept that remains only in the legends of Ancient Rome or is discussed solely at the drawing tables of master architects. Today, this concept is a reality that directly touches our everyday lives and explains why the streets we walk through, the parks where we rest, and the city we live in feel special to us.

The most important thing we need to do in order to notice the spirit of our own surroundings is to slow down and listen to the collective memory offered by the place. As the renowned architect Aldo Rossi stated, “the city itself is the collective memory of those who live there”, and the identity of a place is born from the accumulation of citizens’ memories. The shade of an ancient tree you pass beneath on your way to work, a breeze carrying the smell of the sea, a street where your childhood echoes, or your favorite corner that gives you a sense of belonging and safety. In truth, this is a living spirit interacting with you. As the poet Konstantinos Kavafis expressed in his verses, wherever a person goes, the lived experiences and spirit of that city will always come with them.

Because we are not merely spectators of these landscapes that we design, photograph, and live within; we are an inseparable part of them. In short, the environment we live in is not merely a physical coordinate on a map. It is a living being shaped by our emotions, our past, and the whispers of nature. As long as people continue to seek places where they feel safe, connected, and at peace, that invisible guardian will continue to live within our feelings. So the next time you step outside your door, do not merely look around with an ordinary gaze; feel the touch of the wind on your skin, the past beneath the soil or asphalt, and the invisible bond that the place establishes with you, and listen to the spirit of your own surroundings.

The concept of urban justice refers to the equal, fair and accessible provision of urban life and urban opportunities for all city residents. Understanding whether a city is just does not always require big data or complex analysis. Sometimes one question is enough: who can truly exist in this city? For whom is the city genuinely a place to live, and for whom is it merely an obligation to endure?

Henri Lefebvre’s idea of the right to the city, introduced many years ago, still remains highly relevant today. Yet in our country, it is unfortunately moving further away from being a right enjoyed equally by everyone. People living in the same city often cannot experience spaces with the same perception because of differences in social and economic status.

The distribution of spaces within the city is often far from neutral. The location, quality and continuity of green areas are frequently connected directly to economic and social status. In neighborhoods where higher income groups live, larger, better maintained and more continuous green spaces are more common. In neighborhoods where lower income groups are concentrated, fragmented, neglected or difficult-to-access areas are more visible. This does not create only a physical difference; it also shapes everyday habits, freedom of movement and the relationship people establish with space.

Imagine two people leaving home at the same hour in the morning. One walks to work under the shade of trees. The other moves along narrow sidewalks, weaving between vehicles. Both live in the same city, but they do not experience the same city. This difference is exactly what we mean by urban justice.

Even the plant species used in higher income districts, or the material of a single bench, can often be different. Public spaces feel as valuable and carefully considered as private spaces. In new projects, progress is made in line with the needs and expectations of the surrounding community. In districts where lower-middle income groups live, however, we are often met with careless projects built merely to exist, urban furniture made from the cheapest materials, insufficient safety, inadequate equipment and even poorly selected planting. For this reason, the way two people with different social statuses perceive the same city, and the emotions the city evokes in them, are unfortunately often very different.

In many European cities, public spaces appear not only as designed places, but also as places that have been considered, tested and improved through user experience. These countries treat public space not merely as a physical void to be produced, but as a system from which different user groups can benefit equally. Pedestrian-priority mobility, accessibility standards, lighting systems designed with night-time use in mind and continuity of maintenance all help these spaces become genuinely usable. In Europe, a luxury villa and an apartment can generally benefit from the same public space in an equivalent way.

In Turkey, however, the relationship between the production of space and the everyday practices of using that space is often not established sufficiently. Parks are built, but there is no systematic evaluation of who can use these parks, at what hours and to what extent. As a result, some places may be “public” on paper, but in practice they become more open to the use of certain groups.

At this point, it is not enough to understand the city only as a physical whole. The city does not carry the same meaning for everyone. The same city is the sum of very different experiences for different people.

When Istanbul is mentioned, one person’s mind may fill with walks along the Bosphorus, broad and well-maintained parks and pleasant public spaces. For another person, the same word may bring crowding, noise, heavy traffic and distances that must constantly be overcome. For one person, the city is a place to explore; for another, it is a burden to endure.

This difference cannot be explained only by individual preference. On the contrary, it is directly related to how economic and social status determine a person’s relationship with the city. For a user from a higher income group, the city may offer options, easy access, saved time and often a comfortable experience. For a user from a lower income group, the city can become more limited, more exhausting and more exclusionary.

This is exactly why the debate on urban justice matters. The issue is not only access to the city, but how we experience that city. The way we experience the city is often shaped by economic means, the neighborhood we live in, transportation opportunities and everyday life practices. Therefore, “living in the same city” does not always mean “living the same city.” The city does not offer an equal ground for everyone. On the contrary, it can become a structure that reproduces and makes existing inequalities visible. Urban justice does not mean that everyone living in the same city sees the same places; it means that everyone can exist in those places equally.

Urban justice is not only the result of planning decisions or design approaches. It is also an indicator of who can occupy how much space in the city. Cities become fair not merely through the opportunities they offer, but through how those opportunities are shared among people. What needs to be done today is to notice, before producing new spaces, whom existing spaces include and whom they leave out. A city truly becomes a city only when it becomes equally livable for all its users. Otherwise, it continues to be the sum of different worlds that exist within the same boundaries but never truly touch one another.

For this reason, when thinking about and evaluating urban justice, the question we must ask is not only “what exists in this city?” but “for whom, and how, does this city exist?”

About 70 percent of the planet we live on, and nearly 75 percent of the human body, is water. Yet do we truly know something that is so deeply woven into our lives, and even into our existence? Perhaps the first step in protecting water is to understand it. Beyond basic technical definitions, we need a broader way of seeing water as a living force, a cultural memory and an ecological relationship.

Rainwater management is often discussed through floods, drainage channels, storage systems and infrastructure. These are necessary, but they are not enough by themselves. When water is seen only as a risk to be removed from the city, our relationship with it becomes defensive. We begin to fear water instead of learning how to live with it.

Why Do We Struggle to Manage Rainwater?

As floods become more frequent, water is increasingly treated as an element of danger. This fear changes how people perceive rivers, streams, rain and urban surfaces. The protective reflex is understandable, but it can also distance us from water. A city that wants to manage rainwater must first accept water as part of its own body, not as an outside threat.

Conventional urbanization turns soil into hard surface. Roads, roofs, parking lots and paved squares reduce infiltration and accelerate runoff. Rainwater that could feed soil, vegetation and groundwater is quickly collected, carried away and discharged. In this process, the city loses one of its most important ecological cycles.

Landscape architecture can rebuild this lost relationship. Rain gardens, bioswales, permeable surfaces, retention areas and restored stream corridors are not decorative additions. They are living systems that allow cities to slow, hold, clean and reuse rainwater. They also make water visible again in everyday urban life.

From Fear to Coexistence

The question is not simply how to get rid of rainwater. The real question is how to create urban landscapes that can receive it. A city designed with water does not only reduce flood risk; it creates cooler microclimates, supports biodiversity and offers richer public spaces.

Rainwater management therefore requires both technical knowledge and a shift in perception. We need to stop seeing water only as a problem and begin seeing it as a partner in design. The future of resilient cities depends on this change of perspective.

Carbon emissions are no longer merely an environmental issue; they have become an economic cost. Carbon tax is one of the most important tools that directly reflects this cost onto the producer. This situation directly affects how cities are designed and how landscape decisions are made.

Carbon Tax

The main purpose of a carbon tax is to reduce high-emission activities and accelerate the transition to more sustainable alternatives. Reducing fossil fuel consumption, increasing the use of renewable energy, and assigning an economic value to environmental damage are among the primary objectives of this system.

However, the fight against climate change is not limited to economic policies alone. The way urban areas are planned, the materials that are used, and decisions related to planting design are also important parts of this process. At this point, landscape architecture stands out as a discipline that can directly contribute to reducing carbon emissions and balancing existing carbon.

Why Is Landscape Architecture Important?

Landscape architecture is often seen as an aesthetic arrangement. Yet every design decision directly affects either the carbon production or the carbon storage capacity of a given area.

Through photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it within their structure. For this reason, a well-designed green space does not function as a passive arrangement, but rather as an active carbon management system.

How Can Landscape Architects Reduce Carbon Emissions?

The decisions landscape architects make during design, implementation, and maintenance can significantly alter the carbon footprint of projects. The main approaches that stand out at this point are as follows:

Increasing Carbon Sink Areas

Urban parks, urban forests, and green corridors are among the most effective spaces in terms of carbon storage. During planting design, choosing long-lived species with broad canopies and high biomass potential increases this capacity.

In coastal regions, ecosystems such as wetlands and seagrass meadows also have high carbon storage potential. Protecting and properly managing these areas plays an important role in maintaining carbon balance.

Using Low-Carbon Materials

Materials such as concrete, asphalt, and steel used in landscape projects cause high carbon emissions during production and transportation processes. For this reason, the use of local materials, recycled products, and permeable surfaces is of great importance.

Design Decisions That Improve Energy Efficiency

Landscape design can indirectly affect the energy consumption of buildings. Green roofs and vertical gardens can reduce energy demand by improving the thermal insulation of structures.

Likewise, properly positioned trees can lower cooling needs by providing shade in summer, while windbreak planting can reduce heat loss in winter.

Reducing Carbon During the Maintenance Process

The carbon impact of landscape is not limited to the design phase alone. The maintenance process is also an important factor.

Large turf areas require constant irrigation, mowing, and chemical use. This increases energy consumption and indirect carbon emissions. Instead, when xeriscape approaches and native plant species are preferred, maintenance needs decrease.

In addition, intensive soil cultivation activities can cause the carbon stored in the soil to be released back into the atmosphere. For this reason, intervention should be kept to a minimum.

The Future: Carbon-Oriented Landscape Design

Carbon emissions are no longer merely an environmental datum; they have become an economic criterion. As practices such as carbon taxation become more widespread, the environmental performance of projects will become more visible and measurable.

This shifts landscape architecture beyond being only an aesthetic discipline and turns it into an active part of carbon management. In the near future, the value of a landscape project may be assessed not only by its visual quality, but also by how much carbon it stores and how much emission it helps prevent.

Conclusion

The fight against climate change is a multidimensional process, and design decisions have a much greater impact than we often assume. When applied correctly, landscape architecture can create systems that reduce carbon emissions and store carbon.

In this respect, landscape design is not only an aesthetic arrangement, but also an important tool for environmental sustainability and carbon management.

References

1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2023). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Geneva: IPCC.
2. United Nations Environment Programme (2022). Emissions Gap Report 2022: The Closing Window. Nairobi: UNEP.
3. World Bank (2023). State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2023. Washington DC: World Bank.
4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Rome: FAO.
5. American Society of Landscape Architects (2021). Climate Action Plan. Washington DC: ASLA.
6. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2022). Green Infrastructure and Climate Change Benefits. Washington DC: EPA.
7. European Environment Agency (2021). Nature-based Solutions in Europe: Policy, Knowledge and Practice for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction. Copenhagen: EEA.
8. International Federation of Landscape Architects (2022). Climate Positive Design and Landscape Architecture Report.
9. United Nations (2020). World Cities Report 2020: The Value of Sustainable Urbanization. Nairobi: UN-Habitat.
10. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2021). Effective Carbon Rates 2021: Pricing Carbon Emissions through Taxes and Emissions Trading. Paris: OECD.

When you cut down a tree, you are not simply cutting wood. You are erasing decades, sometimes centuries, of accumulated time, a hidden network of roots woven into the soil, countless living beings that depended on that trunk, and thousands of days that unfolded beneath its canopy. Today, however, modern engineering and landscape practice tell us something different: you do not always have to cut.

But to avoid cutting, you first need to understand what is there. What exactly exists on site? Where is it located? How large is it? How healthy is it? How valuable is it? The systematic answer to these questions is what we call a tree survey.

What Is a Tree Survey and Why Does It Matter So Much?

The term survey, in this context, refers to documenting existing conditions through careful measurement and recording. Just as an architectural survey captures the dimensions, materials, and structural features of a building, a tree survey maps and evaluates all trees on a site by recording their location, species, size, health condition, and ecological value.

Yet a tree survey is far more than a technical measurement exercise. It directly shapes the future of any construction or landscape project. Which trees can remain in place? Which ones can be protected during construction? Which ones can be transplanted? Which ones, if any, must be removed? Every one of these decisions carries ecological as well as economic consequences.

Think of it this way: what happens when a construction site proceeds without a proper tree survey? Heavy machinery may damage valuable trees above or below ground. Some trees decline for reasons that seem unclear at first. Others suffocate beneath compacted soil or hard paving. Before long, very little greenery remains, and the solution is often reduced to buying and planting new trees. A well-prepared survey and transplanting plan, by contrast, can save the existing trees from the start. In many cases, it is cheaper, faster, and far more sustainable.

Stages of a Tree Survey

1. Preliminary Research and Mapping

Everything begins at the desk. Cadastral maps, satellite imagery, and any previous landscape plans for the project site are reviewed. Digital terrain models are prepared. In recent years, drone technology has transformed this stage: an unmanned aerial vehicle can scan a large site within hours and estimate each tree’s GPS location, canopy spread, and height.

2. Field Assessment and Individual Tree Evaluation

The real work begins on site. Each tree is inspected individually by specialists. The following parameters are typically recorded:

Dendrometric Measurements: Diameter at breast height (DBH), total tree height, crown diameter, and crown base height are measured carefully. These figures are not mere statistics; they directly influence whether a tree can be transplanted, how large the root ball should be, and what kind of transport equipment will be needed.

Species Identification: Each tree is recorded by its common and botanical name. This matters because every species has a different root structure, a different level of stress tolerance, and a different transplanting season. Moving an oak is not the same as moving a poplar.

Health and Vitality Analysis: The overall appearance of the tree, trunk injuries, decay, pest or disease symptoms, branch structure, and foliage condition are observed. In some projects, core samples are taken to assess the internal condition of the trunk, while resistance meters and similar diagnostic tools help identify hidden decay.

Legal Protection Status: In urban areas especially, some trees may be legally protected. In Türkiye, monumental or heritage trees can be officially registered, and cutting or relocating them may require special permission from the relevant authorities.

3. Valuation: Trees as Economic Assets

In modern landscape engineering, assigning a monetary value to trees has become standard practice. Methodologies such as the International Society of Arboriculture’s Trunk Formula Method and the widely used European system known as CAVAT (Capital Asset Value for Amenity Trees) assess a tree’s age, size, species, location, and health to estimate its financial value.

These valuations contribute to projects in several important ways: they help define insurance value, support compensation calculations in case of damage, and, perhaps most importantly, allow designers and developers to answer a practical question with real numbers: is it more economical to preserve this tree, transplant it, or replace it?

Modern Tree Transplanting Techniques: The Journey of Roots

Once the survey is complete and the trees to be relocated have been identified, the focus shifts to one of the most delicate intersections between engineering and arboriculture: tree transplanting.

Transplanting a tree does not mean ripping it out of the ground and placing it on a truck. If that is how it is done, the tree will most likely die. Proper transplanting is a combination of careful preparation, precise equipment, correct timing, and a thorough aftercare process.

Root Pruning: Preparing for the Move

Once the decision to relocate a tree has been made, the first major step is root pruning, ideally begun at least one year in advance. Specialists dig around the tree at a defined radius and cut selected roots. This stresses the tree, but in response, it begins producing a denser network of fine fibrous roots closer to the trunk. By the time it is moved, the tree has developed a more compact root ball and can establish itself much more effectively in its new location.

For smaller trees, this period can sometimes be shortened or carried out in a single operation. With larger trees, however, skipping this preparation stage can dramatically reduce the success rate.

Root Ball Sizing: Science or Art?

Determining the correct size of the root ball requires both technical knowledge and professional judgment. According to common ISA-based guidelines, the diameter of the root ball should be roughly 10 to 12 times the trunk diameter, although this varies depending on species, age, and soil conditions. In clay soils, root balls can often be somewhat narrower, while in sandy soils the wider root spread must be taken into account.

Excavation Methods

Traditional Excavation: In this method, machinery and hand tools are used together to excavate around the root ball before the tree is gradually lifted. It can be a cost-effective solution for small and medium-sized trees, although achieving precision becomes more difficult with larger specimens.

Tree Spades: Developed in the mid-20th century and greatly refined since then, tree spades represent one of the most significant technological advances in the field. These machines use steel blades to encircle the root zone and lift the tree together with its soil mass. Smaller models can be mounted on tractors, while large units are capable of moving trees with trunk diameters of 100 to 150 cm or even more. For large-caliper trees, multiple blade sets may be used to prepare the root ball in stages.

Air Spading: This increasingly popular technique uses compressed air to dislodge soil without damaging roots. It is especially useful in urban settings, beneath paved surfaces, or near underground infrastructure where minimizing root damage is essential. It is often preferred for sensitive interventions involving heritage trees or historic sites.

Transport: The Most Critical Hours

Immediately after excavation, the tree is at its most vulnerable. The root ball begins losing moisture, and the tree rapidly enters water stress through transpiration. For this reason, the time between lifting and replanting should be kept as short as possible.

During transport, the root ball is typically wrapped in burlap or secured with wire baskets to retain integrity and moisture. In large trees, the crown may be lightly pruned to reduce water loss, but such pruning should be done carefully and only when justified. For long-distance moves, trees are transported in cool, shaded conditions with the root zone kept damp.

Replanting and Establishment: Learning to Root Again

Once planted in its new location, the tree’s struggle is not over. In many ways, it has only just begun.

Planting Pit: The planting pit should be at least 1.5 to 2 times wider than the root ball, but not excessively deep. The tree should be set slightly above the surrounding soil grade; planting too deep increases the risk of suffocation and decline.

Soil Improvement: Soil texture and pH in the root zone should be adjusted to suit the species. Organic matter, mycorrhizal inoculants, and root-supporting soil amendments may be used where appropriate.

Irrigation Protocol: A transplanted tree usually needs intensive and regular watering for at least the first two years. In contemporary projects, drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to the root zone, while some large trees are fitted with slow-release watering tubes around the trunk to ensure deep and steady irrigation.

Staking and Support Systems: Flexible staking systems are installed to stabilize the tree against wind. It is important that these supports are not too rigid; slight movement encourages the tree to develop stronger anchoring roots.

Mycorrhiza and Biostimulants: Mycorrhizal fungi and various biostimulants are becoming increasingly common in transplanting practice. Research suggests that they can significantly support root development and improve recovery in stressed trees.

The Role of Technology: The Digital Age of Tree Surveying

Traditional tree surveys were once carried out with measuring tapes, compasses, and paper forms. Today, the process has changed dramatically.

LiDAR (Laser Scanning): These systems capture the ground surface and tree structure in three dimensions at the same time, offering exceptional accuracy, particularly in densely vegetated areas. Drone-mounted LiDAR sensors can scan hectares of land in a single day and automatically generate data on tree location, height, and canopy volume.

GIS-Based Tree Management Systems: Collected data are now processed on GIS-based platforms. In a tree information system, the history of each individual tree, its maintenance records, photographs, and transplant status can all be tracked digitally. Municipal tree databases are increasingly becoming part of urban green infrastructure management.

AI-Assisted Health Assessment: Spectral data obtained from drones and remote sensing platforms can be processed through artificial intelligence to detect early stress symptoms, insect damage, or disease outbreaks. What the human eye cannot easily see, infrared imagery often can.

Legal Framework and Professional Responsibility

In Türkiye, tree protection and transplantation are shaped by a range of legal regulations. Construction projects may be required to prepare a tree inventory, obtain permits, and comply with local municipal and environmental rules. Monumental or heritage trees are subject to special procedures, and relocating or removing them generally requires additional authorization from the relevant institutions.

From a professional standpoint, the picture is becoming increasingly clear as well. Large urban development projects now often involve certified arborists. ISA-certified professionals prepare tree transplanting plans, assess risk, and supervise implementation. Although this area of expertise is still developing in Türkiye, universities, landscape architecture departments, and professional organizations have begun taking important steps to strengthen it.

A Sustainability Perspective: What Does a Tree Really Mean?

Sometimes numbers help reveal what words alone cannot fully express.

A mature urban tree can sequester a meaningful amount of carbon each year, intercept rainfall, reduce surrounding air temperatures, and increase nearby property value. When these ecosystem services are translated into economic terms, the annual value of a single well-established urban tree can reach remarkable levels.

And that is the value of just one tree. Now imagine dozens, or hundreds, within a single project.

Before Cutting, Think Again

Tree surveying and tree transplanting reflect the growing maturity of contemporary construction and landscape practice. Projects that once followed the logic of “cut first, plant later” are now increasingly shaped by a different philosophy: understand first, then protect.

This shift is not only an environmental preference. It is also a sound economic decision and a form of intergenerational responsibility. A construction project may serve for decades, but a well-preserved tree can keep giving life for a century.

Perhaps the strongest argument is this: a tree transplanted with the right techniques does not have to die. It can root itself again, continue growing in its new place, and quietly tell future generations, “We were here, and we kept this for you.”

Loving nature is often a well-intentioned starting point, but on its own it is not enough. For many years, I delivered 2–5-day Ecological Literacy Trainings to nearly a thousand students from different age groups and different disciplines. While working with them, I saw something very clearly: when an emotional closeness to nature is not supported by a conceptual ground, it quickly stays on the surface. People can talk about environmental problems, but they struggle to build cause–effect relationships. That is exactly where ecological literacy comes in—as an approach that tries to repair this disconnect.

In ecological literacy trainings, we try to read nature not through binary frames such as “good–bad” or “should be protected–is endangered,” but through systems, thresholds, relationships, and feedback loops. Why does a park feel cool in summer but become unusable in winter? Why does birdsong decrease in a neighborhood? Why doesn’t the same temperature feel the same for everyone in a city? The answers to these questions are not romantic; they are largely conceptual.

This article aims to present, in a clear way, the ecology concepts grounded in natural sciences and landscape thinking that I frequently share before the Ecological Literacy Trainings I have been delivering since 2023 at the Ministry of Youth and Sports to different groups ranging from age 5 to 40. As someone who has worked in this field for many years, I tried to focus less on textbook definitions and more on the meanings that actually take shape in the field.

Core ecological and environmental terms

Ecology is a field of science that examines the complex web of relationships living beings form not only with nature, but also with one another. Seeing ecology merely as a “natural science” is incomplete; because ecology is also a way of thinking. It teaches you to notice where else an intervention might touch, and to see the chain reactions of a change. For this reason, an ecological perspective is indispensable for planning and design disciplines.

Ecosystem refers to the functioning whole formed by all living and non-living components in a given area. Soil, water, air, plants, animals, and microorganisms are in constant interaction. A disruption in one component affects the others as well. That is why ecosystems are fragile, yet at the same time capable of adapting.

Natural balance describes the long-term state of compatibility among these relationships within an ecosystem. Balance is not a fixed condition; on the contrary, it is continuously changing. Yet as long as change stays within certain limits, the system remains standing. When balance is disrupted, the ecosystem shifts into a new order—and this does not always mean a better situation.

Carrying capacity defines the intensity of use or population density that an ecosystem or an area can sustain without losing its ability to renew itself. For cities, this concept is vital. When carrying capacity is exceeded, problems do not accumulate suddenly; they build up slowly.

Biodiversity covers the richness of species, genetic structures, and life forms within an ecosystem. High biodiversity makes a system more resilient to stressors. Uniform systems, on the other hand, are more prone to collapse even under a small shock.

Habitat is the living space where a species meets its needs for shelter, feeding, and reproduction. Habitat loss is not only about an area shrinking, but also about it becoming fragmented. This fragmentation seriously reduces a species’ chance of survival.

Ecological niche refers to the functional role of a species within an ecosystem. If species living in the same environment occupy different niches, conflict decreases. When niches overlap, competition begins, and typically the weaker one is eliminated.

Ecosystem services describe the direct and indirect benefits nature provides for human life. Clean air, water filtration, climate regulation, soil formation, and even psychological well-being are part of these services. Most of the time, these services are not noticed—until they are lost.

Sustainability-focused terms

Sustainability is often understood in everyday language as something like “let everything continue the same way.” Yet the real weight of the concept lies in the opposite: acknowledging that some habits are no longer sustainable. From resource use to consumption patterns, from spatial production to energy choices, it requires confronting limits. That is why sustainability is not comforting; it emerges as a way of thinking that constantly forces people to ask questions, and sometimes even makes them uneasy.

Sustainable development questions the idea that economic growth alone should be treated as a goal. There is development, yes—but its environmental impacts, social costs, and spatial consequences must be considered together. Not all growth is progress; some growth weakens ecosystems, some deepens social inequalities. This concept invites us to rethink development through quality rather than quantity.

Renewable resources refer to resources that nature can continuously regenerate within its own cycles. Solar, wind, water, and biomass are among the best-known examples. Yet the misconception that these resources are “unlimited” is quite widespread. When used at the wrong scale, at the wrong speed, and in the wrong place, renewable resources can also create serious pressure on ecosystems.

Non-renewable resources are resources whose formation takes thousands or even millions of years and cannot be replaced in the short term once consumed. Fossil fuels and certain minerals are at the top of this group. Production and lifestyles based on these resources may create a temporary sense of prosperity, but in the long run they increase environmental and economic fragilities. From the perspective of ecological literacy, this concept teaches how to grasp the difference in time scales.

Circular economy is a systems approach that treats waste not as a problem, but as an input. In this model, product lifespans are extended, materials are reused, or recovered back into the system in different forms. Circular economy is not limited to recycling; starting from the design phase, it centers the idea of “preventing waste from being created.” In this sense, it fundamentally changes the way we think.

Linear economy describes a one-way structure where resources are extracted, processed, consumed, and finally thrown out of the system as waste. The “take–make–use–dispose” logic is the core of this approach. A large part of today’s environmental crises stems from this linear system ignoring limits. Linear economy prioritizes short-term efficiency, while externalizing long-term costs.

Terms related to climate, energy, and comfort

Climate change refers to directional and persistent changes over long periods in climate data such as temperature, precipitation, wind, and humidity. These changes show themselves not only in average values, but also in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events. Climate change is linked to natural processes, yet today it has been largely accelerated by human activities.

Global warming is the most visible and most discussed dimension of climate change. It refers to the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. This increase triggers chain effects such as glacier melt, sea level rise, and shifts in agricultural production patterns. Global warming is not a problem by itself; it is a driver of many problems.

Carbon footprint defines the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere directly and indirectly by individuals, institutions, or activities. Many factors—from daily mobility choices to the food we consume—shape this footprint. The carbon footprint is invisible, but because it can be measured, reduction strategies can be developed.

Water footprint covers the total water consumption behind a product or a lifestyle. This includes not only the water flowing from the tap, but also the indirect water used in production processes. Especially in food and textile products, the water footprint is very high and often goes unnoticed.

Energy efficiency is the ability to reach the same level of comfort or service while consuming less energy. Although this concept is often associated with technology, spatial design, orientation, material choice, and usage habits are at least as decisive as technology. Energy efficiency is a silent but powerful component of design.

Passive design treats climate conditions not as a problem, but as a design input. It aims to reduce energy demand through the relationship a building or open space establishes with sun, wind, and topography. Passive design often goes unnoticed, because when it works well, it becomes invisible.

Active systems are systems that provide indoor and outdoor comfort through mechanical and technological tools. Heating, cooling, and ventilation solutions fall into this group. When active systems are considered together with passive measures, they produce more efficient and more sustainable outcomes.

Thermal comfort is the state of feeling comfortable in a given environment in terms of temperature. This is not only about measured air temperature; humidity, wind, surface temperatures, and a person’s physical condition also affect this perception. Thermal comfort is a concept that is as technical as it is subjective.

Urban heat island effect occurs especially in cities when surfaces retain heat due to concrete, asphalt, and building density. This causes city centers to be warmer than surrounding areas. The heat island effect is an important environmental problem that increases health risks in summer.

Microclimate refers to local climate conditions that form at a small scale. A street, a courtyard, or a park can create its own microclimate. Vegetation cover, building density, and surface types directly influence this local climate.

Sub-concepts that support thermal comfort

Radiant temperature describes the effect of heat emitted by surrounding surfaces on the human body. The difference between how hot a person feels standing in the sun and how hot a person feels standing in the shade is often due to radiant effects. That is why shading is one of the core tools of thermal comfort.

Surface albedo refers to a surface’s capacity to reflect sunlight. Light-colored and reflective surfaces retain less heat, whereas dark surfaces store heat within their mass. In urban design, surface albedo is a factor that directly affects microclimate.

Vegetation density lowers ambient temperature through evapotranspiration and shading. Trees and shrubs are not only aesthetic elements; they are also climate regulators. Dense and correctly positioned vegetation can significantly increase open-space comfort.

Hydrological cycle refers to the continuous movement of water between the Earth’s surface, underground, and the atmosphere. Any disruption in this cycle can lead to issues such as drought or flooding. Urbanization is one of the human activities that most affects the hydrological cycle.

Rainwater harvesting aims to collect rainfall and reuse it instead of quickly draining it away. This approach both protects water resources and reduces flood risk. Especially with climate change, this method has become even more important.

Permeable surfaces reduce runoff by allowing rainwater to infiltrate into the soil. These solutions, used instead of impermeable surfaces like concrete and asphalt, are also critical for groundwater recharge.

Erosion is the transport of soil due to water, wind, or improper land use. Removing vegetation cover and misusing sloped land accelerates erosion. Soil loss is an environmental problem that is difficult to reverse.

Compost is the controlled decomposition of organic waste and its return to the soil. This process increases soil fertility and reduces the amount of waste. Compost is one of the most tangible examples of circular thinking.

Green infrastructure refers to networks of parks, green corridors, and natural area systems that have ecological functions. Green infrastructure is not only about recreation; it is also functional in terms of water management, climate regulation, and biodiversity.

Blue infrastructure covers the integration of water-based ecosystems into planning and design processes. Stream corridors, lakes, and wetlands are key components of this infrastructure. Blue infrastructure is an indispensable part of urban ecology.

Ecological concepts at the urban scale

Urban resilience refers not only to a city’s ability to “withstand” disasters, but also to its capacity to reorganize itself, learn, and transform after environmental, social, and economic shocks. Resilient cities are not cities without vulnerabilities; rather, they are cities that are aware of their vulnerabilities and can develop spatial, administrative, and social mechanisms to reduce them. Cities that can remain standing in the face of climate crises, economic fluctuations, or social stress typically embrace this multi-layered understanding of resilience.

Ecological threshold refers to the limit of pressure an ecosystem or an urban environment can carry. When this threshold is exceeded, the system does not continue operating in the same way; it shifts into a new—and often more fragile—balance. At the urban scale, this can appear as outcomes such as loss of green space, disruption of the water regime, or a harsher microclimate. Ecological planning tries to recognize where these thresholds may form and shape interventions accordingly.

Green networks enable parks, groves, recreation areas, and natural voids to be treated not as isolated spaces but as a connected system. These connections matter not only for ecological continuity, but also for people’s access to urban nature. Continuous green areas support species mobility and increase urban quality of life. The green network approach prioritizes the question “how are these areas connected?” rather than only “how much green space is there?”

Fragmentation refers to the loss of ecological integrity when natural or semi-natural areas are divided by roads, buildings, and infrastructure systems. Fragmented areas restrict species movement, reduce genetic diversity, and decrease ecosystems’ capacity for self-renewal. In cities, this often happens without being noticed; it emerges through the accumulation of small interventions, and its impact is felt in the long term.

Urban sprawl describes the expansion of a city toward surrounding areas in a low-density, scattered, and often unplanned way. This process creates serious pressure on agricultural lands and natural ecosystems. It also extends travel distances, increases energy consumption, and raises infrastructure costs. Urban sprawl may offer a short-term sense of spacious living, but in the long run it weakens environmental and economic sustainability.

Compact city is a settlement approach that stands against urban sprawl. It advocates denser but functional, accessible, mixed-use environments. Because housing, work, education, and social areas are located closer to each other, mobility demand decreases and energy use drops. The compact city treats density not as a problem, but as an opportunity—when managed well.

Cittaslow (slow city) defends a more balanced way of life against a city model focused on speed, consumption, and continuous growth. It prioritizes local identity, public space quality, and environmental sensitivity. The slow city approach does not aim for every urban function to slow down; it aims for the rhythm of life to become compatible with the human scale. In this respect, it builds a strong link with ecological literacy.

Nature contact

Nature contact covers all physical or perceptual interactions a person establishes with nature. This contact can occur through walking in a park, but also through seeing a tree from a window or hearing a natural sound. Research shows that nature contact reduces stress levels, increases attention capacity, and supports psychological well-being. The decline of nature contact in cities should be treated not only as an ecological issue, but also as a public health issue.

Biophilia describes the innate, unlearned tendency of humans to feel close to nature. When this tendency is suppressed or ignored, spatial alienation increases; people have difficulty forming a bond with the environment they live in. Biophilia reminds us that nature is not only an aesthetic element, but also part of human psychological and physical needs.

Biophilic design is an approach that translates the concept of biophilia into spatial decisions. Daylight, vegetation elements, water features, natural materials, and visual connection to nature are key tools of this approach. Biophilic design does not aim merely to produce spaces that “look green,” but to construct experiences that strengthen the human–nature bond.

Visual comfort is the state of a space being balanced for the eye, not tiring, and perceptually soothing. Excessively harsh contrasts, overly complex arrangements, or irregular visual load reduce visual comfort. Natural forms, soft transitions, and balanced voids support this comfort. Visual comfort directly affects long-term use of a space.

Acoustic comfort is the balancing of sound levels and sound types in an environment so that they do not disturb the user. Natural sounds—especially elements such as water and wind—are often found more tolerable than artificial noise. Acoustic comfort is one of the factors that shapes spatial quality, yet it is frequently overlooked.

Multisensory spatial perception refers to experiencing a space not only visually, but also through hearing, touch, smell, and even thermally. People use all their senses when bonding with a place. For this reason, single-sense designs often remain superficial. Multisensory perception increases a space’s memorability and the feeling of belonging.

Restorative environments are places that reduce mental fatigue, restore attention, and provide physical relaxation. Parks that include natural elements, coastal areas, and semi-natural open spaces are primary examples of these environments. Restorative environments should be considered as important areas that alleviate the cognitive load created by modern urban life.

The Contribution of Biophilic Design to Urban Life

Rapidly increasing urbanization is distancing people from nature. Individuals living amid concrete and dense development are losing their connection with the natural world more and more each day. Yet nature is indispensable—not only ecologically, but also for mental and physical well-being. And this is exactly where a concept we hear often in recent years comes into view: biophilic design.

What Is Biophilic Design?

Biophilic design can be described as an approach that strengthens the bond between people and nature by integrating natural elements into living environments. Using natural light, increasing green areas, placing plants in indoor and outdoor spaces, incorporating water features, and bringing natural materials into design are among its core components. The aim is to respond to people’s longing for nature within modern living spaces.

Sometimes, even a small potted plant placed next to an office desk can help re-establish that connection. Other times, a large green space created in the center of a city can touch the lives of thousands. In this sense, biophilic design offers solutions—at any scale—focused on meeting the human need for nature.

Why Is It Important in Urban Life?

One of the biggest challenges for people living in cities is stress and an intense pace of life. Research shows that contact with nature benefits human psychology, reduces stress levels, and improves focus. Through biophilic design, it becomes possible to benefit from nature’s restorative power even within the city. For example, plants used in offices can increase employee productivity, while parks and green streets support social interaction.

Biophilic design is also important not only psychologically but physically. Increasing natural ventilation and daylight use improves air quality, creating healthier living environments. The importance of contact with nature in children’s development, in particular, should not be overlooked. Designing playgrounds with natural materials supports children’s creativity while also providing a safe and healthy play setting.

Examples of Successful Applications

There are many striking examples of biophilic design around the world. The Gardens by the Bay project in Singapore is a large-scale biophilic design example that brings technology and nature together, allowing urban life to breathe. New York’s High Line Park, on the other hand, stands out as a public space created by transforming an old railway line—blending natural planting and landscape elements. Such projects do more than add aesthetic value; they strengthen urban residents’ relationship with nature.

In Türkiye, interest in biophilic design is also growing. Especially in next-generation office projects and urban regeneration areas, indoor planting and green roofs are becoming more common. In Istanbul, vertical garden applications implemented by some municipalities allow city residents to have more daily contact with nature. In addition, green corridor projects developed in areas such as Karşıyaka and Bornova in İzmir provide opportunities for people to spend time in nature while walking or cycling.

A Roadmap for the Cities of the Future

Biophilic design is an important approach not only for today but also for the cities of the future. At a time when sustainability goals and the fight against climate change are intensifying, we have to make nature an inseparable part of urban life. In this context, biophilic design offers a roadmap capable of creating positive impacts at both individual and societal scales.

In a world where cities are becoming increasingly crowded, people need peaceful, healthy, and happy living environments more than ever. For this reason, biophilic design should be seen not only as a trend but as a lasting approach that shapes the future of cities.

Conclusion

Biophilic design is not only an aesthetic approach, but also a philosophy that makes urban life healthier, calmer, and more sustainable. Rediscovering nature in cities increases people’s happiness and quality of life, while also serving as a guiding step for the cities of the future. Every new park, every green roof, every structure that receives natural light is, in fact, a small yet meaningful step that strengthens the bond between humans and nature.

Urban green spaces have a great role in improving the quality of urban ecological life. Therefore, whether in urban or rural environments, the importance of plant material is always great. In terms of functionality and aesthetics, it is necessary to consider aesthetic efficiency as well as functional effects in a design. Both functional and aesthetic effects complement each other.

So, how did the edible landscape originate?

The origin of the edible landscape is not as recent as one might think. Traces of this technique can be seen in ancient Egyptian and Babylonian gardens. If we dig even deeper, it’s 10. It has been learned that ‘Benedictine Priests’ planted in the church gardens in the style of an orchard in the 19th century. these studies, which were carried out in the oldest times, are actually only experimental studies. If we take a closer look at the history, small vegetable gardens called ‘Potager’, that is, kitchen garden, have started to be established. Large vegetable gardens were started to be designed by carrying small-scale vegetable growing to larger sizes.

By the 1970s, the increasing prices of vegetables and fruits greatly increased the value of the gardens. Everyone has started to save money by growing their own fruits and vegetables, and they have also affected greenhouse gas emissions.

Landscape designer Robert Kourik in the 1980s identified the genre of horticulture that combines aesthetic design with edible crop production. Thus, the first use of the concept of ‘Edible Landscape’ began. In 1982, Rosalind Creasy introduced the term to the landscape world with her article titled ‘The Complete Book of Edible’.

Edible grasses were used instead of grass in the design of the edible landscape, lettuce-style vegetables instead of the limiters, and edible fruit-bearing trees or flowers were used in the interior design. Today, edible garden designs represent a more environmentally friendly approach.

Plants; In addition to their aesthetic effects in the green areas they create, they also help users interact with their living spaces with their functional features. Considering both functionally and aesthetically, it is necessary to consider the aesthetic effect in a design alongside the functional effect. Plants with nutritional value for humans; Field crops, vegetables, edible fruit trees and shrubs include the group of edible plants that are generally edible and consumed as food.

These plants; Due to the aesthetic contribution of landscape plants, it has started to take the place of ornamental plants in open green areas. Edible plants contain decorative features, as well as being food plants with the most distinctive features, making them productive plants that can be safely eaten by humans. Edible landscape includes plant species that have both aesthetic value and nutritious food value without the aim of providing economic gain.

These plants have recently been evaluated as a new value within the framework of the concept of functional plants. As a result of urbanization, the decrease in natural areas has affected human beings negatively in many ways. In order to eliminate these negativities, besides using natural resources, human beings needed the plants in the environment they lived in both rural and urban living areas.

The purpose and usability of edible landscape allow for its wide adoption by significant user bases and a great opportunity for the transition to more sustainable food systems and urban land uses.

There are sub-headings in this process, which starts with the observation of the physical conditions of the area; It is possible to name the size of the area, the type of soil, water resources, the direction of movement of the sun, its position relative to the directions, its relationship with other structures around it.

The golden rule in edible garden design is that each element serves multiple functions and each function must be supported by more than one element. Edible urban gardens are an important project for people to have access to clean food, for children to participate in plant growth processes and to experience that they are producers and self-sufficient societies rather than consumers.

The most important details of the plant species to be selected are that the seeds and seedlings have not been genetically modified, they have the ability to reproduce, the ones that are suitable for the season are preferred, chemical drugs that adapt to the conditions in the geography (such as plants that love hot for a hot and arid climate and need less water) There should be plants that can fight the problems that may occur without using them. Vertical gardens that increase the use of space, warehouses where we can harvest rainwater, herb gardens prepared according to different elevations and directions, seed germination corner for children, the compost section where you create your own soil for sustainability, and the realization of all these ideas with practice.

The most popular plants used in an edible landscape fall into five basic categories:

• Fruit bearing trees

• Berry bushes

• Herbs

• Edible flowers

• Leafy greens

You can design your own edible garden. Let’s talk a little about what is necessary for this and the elements that need attention.

Materials needed for an edible garden;

1- Stakes and rope should be used to show the design of the garden you will build.

2- You can use a mower and a Rototiller machine to level the ground.

3- Hand tools such as shovels, hand trowels and rakes.

4- You can use compost to feed the existing soil.

5- All necessary materials for the irrigation system

6- It will be appropriate for your garden to have fencing material to prevent the entry of wild animals and destruction.

7- You can create your own fertilizer for your garden by installing a compost system (prefabricated boxes, wooden slats, chicken wire enclosures, etc.).

8- Mulch material to cover and feed the soil 1-2 cm. ( bark straw, sawdust)

9- You should have ready vegetables, seeds for herbs, and saplings for fruit trees that you decide to grow in your garden.

Let me tell you a little about some of the elements that you should pay attention to when setting up your garden;

• I recommend you to have a soil test to find out what kind of changes your existing soil may need in the area where the design will be applied, or whether there are traces of grass chemicals if grass has been applied before.
• Make a plan for the garden design and make sure to mark the areas to be designed. This will reduce your margin of error.
• Weeds in the area must be completely cleared.
• I suggest you add plenty of compost, vermicompost, manure, mushroom soil and, if needed, a soil addition on the exposed soil that you do not plant.
• You can install compost bins and a rainwater harvesting system in your garden.

Landscape Architecture and Plant Use

When using plant material in the study of landscape architecture, along with the principles of design, the dendrological characteristics of plants should also be taken into account. Plants used and designs made without taking into account dendrological features can lead to incorrect results. Because plants are dynamic beings, they react differently according to the seasons and the ecology they are in. Each plant has a different visual effect and aesthetic value depending on the size, shape, color, texture characteristics. The functional properties of plants also differ according to their dendrological characteristics. Without having detailed information about the plants, the choices made only by looking at their pictures in the catalogs will not give the right results.

Grouping of Plant Material

Plants used in landscape design are divided into three groups: annual, biannual, perennial according to their lifespan and habitus characteristics.

Annual Plants

Plants that complete their vegetative and generative development within a year, end their life after creating seeds, and can produce them with seeds in subsequent years are called annual plants. For example, petunia, steamboat smoke, marigold, fireflower, zinnia

Biennial Plants

Plants that complete their vegetative development, that is, leaf and shoot development in the first year, show generative development in the second year, end their life at the end of the second year, and are produced by seed in the following years are called biannual plants. For example, foxglove, snapdragon, foxglove, hosnuyusuf

Perennial Plants

Perennials, even if the above-ground part dries up at the end of the vegetation period, form new shoots with root or underground organs at the beginning of the next vegetation period. Examples include some herbaceous plants such as chrysanthemums, carnations, and woody plants such as trees, treetops, and shrubs.

What is dendrology?

The branch of science that studies the size, form, color, texture, characteristics of woody plants and their cultivation techniques is called Dendrology. Dendrological features of plants have a very different psychological effect on the appearance of space. For example, the psychological effect that white poplar, which has pyramidal development, has on humans is different from the panicle willow, the branches of which hang down. Scattered, soft-topped trees create a feeling of peace and comfort in a person, while trees with dark green leaves that develop in the form of columns and pyramids, especially create fear, respect and discipline in a person. Yesilmaz. But when they are used too much, they have monotony, annoying effects. Trees with a panicle form, which are kept in solitary form or in small numbers in green areas, give a person a feeling of peace, closure to the inner world and sadness. Yesilmaz the colors of plants also have a psychological effect on humans. For example, brightly colored leafy plants give happiness and joy to people, while dull and dull-colored green trees create inner distress.

Dendrological properties of plant material

When using plant material, it is of great importance to know its ecological properties, as well as its properties such as size, shape, color effect and texture. It is a very important element that the plants that will be used when designing will develop in accordance with the geography of design and application. Because if the plant does not show the desired development, the effect of the design decreases. For this reason, we should know the dendrological properties and ecological properties of plants well.

Size is an important feature when choosing plants in design. Because the size of the plant directly affects the scale of the design.

In terms of size, we can collect plants in 7 heads.

• Large Trees are the group of plants with the largest scale. Their height is 15 meters and more.

• Small Trees (Treetops) are distinguished from large trees by the fact that they have a shorter trunk. they are plants that can be dec 4-8 meters tall.

• Large Shrubs are plants that grow no more than 3-5 meters tall. The difference between them and small trees is that the bushes are dec that can branch without giving the trunk length.
  

• Medium Shrubs; They are plants that can be dec between 1.5-2 meters. It has functions such as providing privacy, visual control, wind control.

• Small Shrubs are plants that reach a height of 1-1.5 meters or less. Small shrubs are shrubs that provide a transition between medium and decumbent shrubs.

• Stunted Shrubs are plants that can be dec 30-100 cm apart, are at the level of a sitting person. They are plants that can be used for outdoor construction with small shrubs that do not interfere with vision.

• Ground coverers are the smallest group of plants in terms of size. It is a group that can usually be 30 cm tall, very close to the soil surface, almost conjoined development.

• Topiary Art: It is the art of giving the desired shape to the plant with the pruning technique when it comes to changing the natural form of a plant and making the desired form in the composition.

Classification of forms in plants

Form; Another important element in plant design is form. In general, the form of a plant arises under the influence of hereditary influences and ecological conditions. The basic form of a plant depends on its natural growth. The difference in plant species reveals different forms in different ecologies. there are 8 plant forms.

1. Oval-shaped ; Robinia Pseudoacacia

2. Columnar shaped; Taxus Baccata (Common Badger)

3. Large – spreading form ; Malus Floribunda (Ornamental Apple)

4. Round – Globular form ; Fagus Sylvatica (European Beech)

5. Picturesque-Landscape-shaped ; Bonsai Plants Sequoia Sempervirens (Coast Redwood)

6. Drooping form ; Salix Babylonica (Panicle Willow)

7. Creeping – spreading form ; Juniperus Sabina Tamarixifolia (Culture Juniper)

8. Picturesque-Landscape-shaped ; Bonsai Plants

Trees can be given as an example.

The Element of Color in the Selection of Plants

It is one of the design elements that affects people the most. It is the color that best indicates whether the plants are suitable for the place where they grow. The color effect varies depending on the ecological conditions. Depending on the color used, a warm or cold effect also appears in the design. Even if the effects dec different between people, the psychological effects of color on people are generally the same.

In the landscape, almost everything is expressed in color. in the use of color, the flowers, leaves, stems, colors of plant material, plants that create a color effect with their leaves in autumn (dendrological properties) should be well known.

The Element of Texture in Plant Selection

In plant design, texture is the totality of the size and arrangement of branches, shoots or leaves, the length of the petiole, as well as their characteristics that vary depending on the season, such as coarseness, thinness, hardness, softness, weight, lightness, thickness, thinness.

The texture allows the designer to add interestingness and variety to the herbal composition.

Plants can be examined in 3 groups according to their texture characteristics, Thin, medium and coarse;

Coarse Texture, these plants give the feeling that they are approaching the sensor due to their properties. For example, it can be Platanus Orientalis (Eastern Sycamore), Aesculus Hippocastanum (Horse Chestnut).

Medium tissue plants, on the other hand, are more transparent and less powerful in terms of silhouette than coarse-textured plants. For example, it can be Melia Azedarach (Rosary Tree).

Fine-textured plants have completely opposite properties of coarse-textured plants. They are soft and gentle in appearance. For example, it may be Parkinsonia Aculeata (Pheasant Acacia).

I wish you all a pleasant reading in this article where I mentioned the importance and features of using plants for the profession of landscape architecture. Undoubtedly, our focus and task is nature and our ability to protect and maintain it. In doing so, I wanted to touch on the topic so that we would be aware and know the reasons. I hope it adds something to everyone.